Information Gaps In English Teaching
[Running Essay| Weblog| Topics]
Information Gaps In English Teaching
Another definition of “Information Gap Activity” in language teaching:
In an information gap activity, one person has certain information that must be shared with others in order to solve a problem, gather information or make decisions… students are forced to negotiate meaning because they must make what they are saying comprehensible to others in order to accomplish the task ( Using Information Gap Activities in the Second Language Classroom)
Yet another definition:
information gap: a communication exercise in which each of two paired students have information which they must orally relate to each other in order to fill in the “gaps” in the information they have. English Teaching Glossary
Definitions of “information gap”, “jigsaw activity”, and “communicative purpose” are brought together in this teaching tip.
Who the murderer is in a murder mystery is the information gap in this mini-activity.
An information gap can also be the reason for making a telephone call (simulated or real):
get your students to ring each other in English. Easier said than done – if they speak the same language why wouldn’t they naturally do it in their language, you ask. True, but if you explain why they are doing it & they are interested in doing it then there shouldn’t be a problem. You could set up some pair work information gap in the class & they carry out the task by phone at home – one ringing a lost property office to claim something. The ‘office’ student has a page of similar objects & the student ringing has to describe their property in detail. Or requesting some information, plane/train/shop using timetables & price lists. (Speaking Homework)
An online English teaching FAQ answers the question: “What is an “information gap” activity?” :
It’s where two students each have half of the answers to some kind of problem or question. They ach have to explain their half of the information to their partner so that they both end up with all the information. For example, one student gets a list of what “John” did last Monday, Wednesday and Friday. The other gets a list of what “John” did on Saturday, Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday. They share the information by asking/answering e.g., “What did he do on Saturday morning?”/”He went to the supermarket.” Information gaps are particularly useful because they reflect the way we use language as a means of communication in real life. ( Jeff Mohamed’s TEFL Classroom Clinic : General Methodology & Terminology)
The online article “The Task of Teaching: Task-Based Language Teaching to Teachers”, George M Jacobs describes the notion of “information gap” in further detail:
In other group activities information exchange is required, because an information gap exists in which not all group members hold the same information. There are two types of information gap activities: one-way and two-way. One-way occurs when one person holds information which other group member(s) do not have. An example of a one-way information exchange is one in which one person has a picture and describes it to their partner who tries to draw it. A two-way information gap occurs when each group member holds unique information, e.g., jigsaw activities. An example of jigsaw is when each member of a group receives a different part of the text. They need to tell each other the information in their unique piece of the text and then do a task which requires information from all the pieces.
Both one-way and two-way information exchange activities involve an information gap in that information must flow between group members in order for the activity to be completed. The difference lies in whether each group member needs to send as well as receive information in order to complete the activity.
The information involved in the gap can be of two kinds: supplied-to-the-learner and supplied-by-the-learner. Supplied-to-the-learner, the type usually discussed in the literature on information gap, is when the gap is created by giving one or more group members information which others do not have. An example could involve giving one person one version of a picture, giving another version of the same picture to their partner, and asking them to identify the differences between the two pictures. This activity is call Spot the Difference.
On the other hand, supplied-by-the-learner information gaps are those which exist because of unique information which learners already possess. Asking students to interview each other about their families would be an example of unique information which learners supply from knowledge they already possess.
Language Learning Strategies Used by Students at Different Proficiency Levels
Author
Ya-Ling Wu
National Chin-yi University of Technology, Taiwan
Bio Data:
Ya-Ling Wu is an Associate Professor in the Department of Applied English at National Chin-Yi University of Technology. Her research interests include language learning strategies, English for Specific Purposes and learning styles. She teaches classes in English composition, English conversation and ESP (English for business, English for administration and management, English for Journalism, English for Tourism).

Abstract
This study is designed to determine: (1) whether a statistically significant difference exists in the extent of language learning strategy use between higher proficiency and lower proficiency EFL students; (2) the strength of the effect of language learning strategy use on English proficiency. The study finds that higher proficiency EFL students use learning strategies more often than lower proficiency EFL students, especially cognitive, metacognigive and social strategies. On the other hand, there is no difference in the use of memory strategies between higher and lower proficiency EFL students. Regarding the relationship between language learning strategy and English proficiency, it was found that cognitive strategies had the strongest influence. Findings indicate that compensation strategies are most often used by EFL students.
Keywords: Foreign Language; Learning Strategy; Language Learning Strategy
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to probe the difference of language learning strategy use between higher and lower English proficiency level EFL students. Moreover, the relationship between language learning strategy and English proficiency is revealed. This paper includes four parts: literature review (including definition of learning strategies, classification of learning strategies, studies of language learning strategies), research questions and hypotheses, research method, results and conclusions.
Literature review
Within the area of foreign language research, a number of studies indicate that learning strategies play a significant role in successful language learning. Politzer and McGroarty (1983) claimed that learning strategies are positively associated with language acquisition. They may improve learners’ learning in the forms and functions which are required for comprehension and production (Rubin, 1981). Moreover, learners utilize learning strategies to aid the acquisition, storage, or retrieval of information (Rigney, 1978). In specific, the behaviors or actions used by learners to make language learning more successful, self-directed, and enjoyable are considered language learning strategies. Therefore, persistent the use of the strategies for language learning is a fundamental requirement. As a result, it affects achievement (Bialystok & Frohlich, 1978; Bialystok, 1979).
The definition of learning strategies
Learning strategies have been defined by several researchers (Bialystok, 1978; Chamot, 1987; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1987). These definitions are listed chronologically below with remarks about the major points made in each work (see Table 1).
Table 1. Definition of Learning Strategies
1978 Bialystok, E. Language learning strategies are optional means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language (p. 71).
1987 Rubin, J. Learning strategies are those which contribute to the development of the language system that the learner constructs and affects learning directly (p. 23).
1987 Chamot, A. Learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information (p. 71).
1990 O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. Learning strategies are the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p. 1).
1990 Oxford, R. Learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (p. 8).
2001 Hall, J. K. Learning strategies are goal-directed actions that are used by learners to mediate their own learning (p. 92).
Bialystok’s definition does not indicate what “optional means” are. As a result, it seems to cause misunderstanding. On the other hand, Rubin (1987) emphasizes “social strategies,” which refer to the action affecting learning indirectly. Hence, the above two researchers are not in full agreement in the elements of language learning strategies. In addition, the definition of Bialystok (1978), “to improve competence in a second language” (p. 71), focuses on how to be more proficient learners, not how to learn effectively or easily. In contrast, the definition of Rubin (1987) does not mention the purpose for which learners use learning strategies. Therefore, there is also no agreement on the purpose of using learning strategies between the two definitions. However, Chamot (1987), O’Malley and Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990) and Hall (2001) defined “element and purpose” in more detail than the previous studies did. Chamot’s (1987) definition includes the element of language learning strategies: “techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions” (p. 71). The definition from O’Malley and Chamot (1990) contains “special thoughts or behaviors” (p. 1). Oxford (1990) considers it as “specific actions” (p. 8). Hall deemed it as “goal-directed actions” (p. 92). As for the purpose of using language-learning strategies, it is to be able to “facilitate the learning” (Chamot, 1987); “help them to comprehend” (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990); “make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable” (Oxford, 1990); “mediate their own learning” (Hall, 2001). Since Oxford’s (1990) definition includes everything that second/foreign language learners need to be intelligent learners, I will use her definition of language learning strategies in this study.
Classification of learning strategies
Learning strategies are typically grouped into three categories, that is, cognitive, metacognitive and socioaffective (Chamot & Küpper, 1989; O’Malley, Chamot, & Küpper, 1989; O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Küpper, & Russo, 1985). Cognitive strategies are behaviors, techniques, or actions used by learners to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge or a skill (Derry & Murphy, 1986; Rubin, 1987). Metacognitive strategies are management techniques by which learners control their learning process via planning, monitoring, evaluating, and modifying their learning approaches (Rubin, 1990). Socioaffective strategies include asking for clarification, repeating, imitating, circumlocuting, cooperating, and engaging in private speech (Hall, 2001). This classification scheme, developed initially for ESL students (O’Malley et al., 1985), was later validated with foreign language learners, including students of Russian, Spanish, and Japanese in the United States (Barnhardt, 1992; Chamot and Kupper, 1989; Omori, 1992), English as a foreign language students in Brazil (Absy, 1992; Lott-Lage, 1993), and students of French in Canada (Vandergrift, 1992).
However, learning strategies may be grouped in other ways. According to Oxford (1990), learning strategies may be divided into two classes, direct strategies and indirect strategies, and each class contains three categories. Direct strategies help learners to learn the target language directly; indirect strategies help learners to support and manage language learning without directly involving the target language. Direct strategies are subdivided into memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies; indirect strategies are subdivided into metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. In this study, I will use Oxford’s (1990) classification as described below (Oxford, 1990, p. 8):
1. Memory strategies
Memory strategies are techniques that help learners store and retrieve new information, e.g., creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing in a structured way, etc.
2. Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are skills or steps that involve direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of the target language, such as formal practice with sounds or structures, functional practice in natural interactions, reasoning, translating, analyzing, note-taking, etc.
3. Compensation strategies
Compensation strategies are those that enable learners to make up their missing knowledge in the process of comprehending or producing the target language, such as guessing wisely in listening and reading, using gestures, switching to the native language, and using a synonym or description in order to get the meaning across in speaking or writing.
4. Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive strategies are steps that learners take to manage or regulate their learning, such as planning and arranging for learning tasks, setting goals and objectives, monitoring the learning process for errors, and evaluating progress.
5. Affective strategies
Affective strategies are those strategies that help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related to language learning. Such strategies include encouraging oneself through positive self-talk, talking with someone about your feelings about learning the target language, etc.
6. Social strategies
Social strategies are actions that involve other people, such as asking questions, cooperating with others, and becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings.
Studies of language learning strategies
In the 1970s, the significance of individual variations in language learning was first noticed by researchers. Various researchers have studied factors related to choice of language learning strategies (Oxford and Nyikos, 1989; Ehrman and Oxford, 1989). These factors include degree of metacognitive awareness, gender, level of language learning, language being learned, affective variables (e.g., attitudes, motivation and language learning goals), personality type, learning style, career choice, aptitude, number of years of language study, and language teaching methods. In most previous strategy research, gender difference in strategy use was neglected. Additionally, according to Gardner (1985), attitudes and motivation are the primary determining factors to individual language learning. The learners with high motivation to learn a language will likely use a variety of strategies (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989).
Some researchers tend to distinguish successful learners from less successful learners based on the use of metacognitive strategies (Oxford, 1993). In a relational study which involved sixty Taiwanese graduate and undergraduate students at Indiana University, Chang and Huang (1999) found that memory strategies are related to extrinsic but not intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, studies of the listening strategies of successful language learners show that cognitive and metacoganitive strategies are used by L2/FL listeners (DeFillipis, 1980; Laviosa, 1991a, 1991b; Murphy, 1985; O’Malley, Chamot, & Kupper, 1989; Rost & Ross, 1991; Vandergrift, 1992).
The factor, proficiency level, was addressed in studies related to language learning strategy by some researchers. In a study of 70 high-school age students enrolled in ESL classes from three high schools in an Eastern metropolitan area in the United States, the authors (O’Malley et al., 1985) revealed that intermediate level students tended to use proportionally more metacognitive strategies than students with beginning level proficiency. Chamot, O’Malley, Küpper and Impink-Hernandez (1987) found that cognitive strategy use decreased and metacognitive strategy use rose as the foreign language course level increased, but social affective strategy use remained very low across all course levels. In addition, according to some research, proficiency level and gender affect the choice of language learning strategies (Politzer, 1983; Oxford and Nyikos, 1989; Ehrman and Oxford, 1989; Oxford, 1993; O’Malley et al., 1985; Chamot, O’Malley, Küpper and Impink-Hernandez, 1987).
Research questions and hypotheses
According to the previous review, proficiency level is one of the factors to affect the choice of language learning strategies. The purpose of this study is to investigate the difference in the extent and types of language learning strategy use between higher and lower proficiency EFL students. This study was designed to determine: (1) whether a statistically significant difference exists in the extent of language learning strategy use between higher and lower proficiency EFL students; (2) the strength of the effect of language learning strategy use on English proficiency. The research questions and null hypotheses are stated as follows:
(1) Is there any difference in the extent of language learning strategy use between higher and lower proficiency EFL students?
H01: There is no significant difference in mean language learning strategy average total score of higher proficiency EFL students and lower proficiency EFL students.
H02: There is no significant difference in mean language learning strategy average subscores of higher proficiency EFL students and lower proficiency EFL students.
(2) Does the reported use of language learning strategies significantly relate to English proficiency?
H03: There is no significant relationship between the use of the six types of language learning strategies and the scores on English proficiency test among EFL students
Method
Subjects
Participants were recruited from a population of students at the National Chin-Yi University of Technology in Taiwan. The participants were divided into two groups according to the scores on the entrance exam. The first group included 49 sophomores majoring in English. They were considered as higher proficiency EFL learners. The second group included 88 freshmen who were not majored in English. Their English proficiency levels are generally considered low compared to the sophomores majoring in English. Table 2 summarizes the profile of participants.
Table 2. Profile of Participants
Group Number Percent
Higher proficiency 49 36%
Lower proficiency 88 64%
Instruments
1. SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning)
Language learning strategy use was examined in terms of memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. The instrument used in this study was Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). SILL questionnaire ESL/EFL Version 7.0 (Oxford, 1989) measures the type (memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social) and frequency of strategy use. The instrument consists of 50 statements. Items #1-9 concern the effectiveness of memory (memory strategies); items #10-23 represent the use of mental processes (cognitive strategies); items #24-29 are the compensation for missing knowledge (compensation strategies); item #30-38 deal with the organization and evaluation of learning (metacognitive strategies); items #39-44 concern emotion management (affective strategies); items #45-50 concern learning with others (social strategies). Students answered each item statement using a 5-point Likert-scale that ranged from 1 (Never or almost never true of me) through 5 (Always or almost always true of me). The internal consistency reliability Cronbach’s alpha is .96 for a 1200-person university sample and .95 for a 483-person military sample. Content validity is .95 (Oxford, 1990).
2. GEPT (General English Proficiency Test)
English proficiency was measured by GEPT. GEPT is a test of general English proficiency, which was sponsored by Ministry of Education and developed by the Language Training and Testing Center in 1990. The test includes four parts: listening, reading, writing and speaking. GEPT is divided into five levels: elementary, intermediate, high intermediate, advanced and superior. In listening test, it contains three sections: 10 questions on picture description, 10 questions on question-response and 10 questions on short conversation. The reading test includes three sections: 15 questions on incomplete sentence, 10 questions on cloze and 10 questions on reading comprehension. The writing test consists of 5 questions on sentence rewriting according to the required direction, 5 questions on sentence combining, 5 questions on rearranging given words into a sentence and paragraph writing based on the given picture. The scores on listening, reading and writing were used to analyze the relationship between language learning strategy use and English proficiency.
Data analysis
In this study, to test Hypothesis One and Hypothesis Two, an independent samples t-test was used to evaluate the differences in language learning strategy use between higher and lower proficiency EFL students. Furthermore, to test Hypothesis Three, a multiple regression was used to evaluate the effect of language learning strategy use on English proficiency.
Results
This study examined three hypotheses which relate to the extent and types of language learning strategies used by higher and lower proficiency EFL students and their English proficiency. The report of the results consists of two parts:
1. Independent samples t-test
2. Multiple regression analysis
The data in this study obtained from the SILL and the GEPT test were tabulated and analyzed using Statistical Package SAS for Windows.
(1) Independent samples t-test
Independent samples t-test was used to evaluate the differences in language learning strategy use between higher and lower proficiency EFL students. To test Hypothesis One, an independent samples t-test was used to determine the significance of differences, if any, between means of average total scores of SILL by higher and lower proficiency EFL students. Similarly, to test Hypothesis Two, the independent samples t-test was utilized to compare the difference mean language learning strategy average subscores for each type of strategy between higher and lower proficiency EFL students.
Table 3 relates to English proficiency level and presents data related to the overall SILL mean score as well as the mean scores on the six types of strategies for higher and lower proficiency EFL students. In addition, it reveals the result of the independent samples t-test.
Table 3. Independent Samples t-test on proficiency level
Strategies Group Mean SD t value p value
Memory Higher proficiency 3.0884 .4938 .95 .3439
Lower proficiency 3.0013 .5262
Cognitive Higher proficiency 3.4329 .5197 3.94 .0001**
Lower proficiency 3.0586 .5436
Compensation Higher proficiency 3.6701 .5778 2.44 .0161*
Lower proficiency 3.4261 .5524
Metacognitive Higher proficiency 3.4830 .4494 4.12 .0001**
Lower proficiency 3.0871 .5822
Affective Higher proficiency 3.0782 .6162 1.99 .0481*
Lower proficiency 2.8580 .6213
Social Higher proficiency 3.4184 .5933 3.43 .0008**
Lower proficiency 2.9943 .7421
TOTAL Higher proficiency 3.3618 .4110 3.50 .0006**
Lower proficiency 3.0706 .4959
Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level)
* p < .05 (significant at .05 level)
Based upon the mean difference on the SILL average total score between higher and lower proficiency EFL students in Table 3 (p = .0006), Hypothesis One was rejected. This indicates that higher proficiency EFL students use language learning strategies more often than lower proficiency EFL students. Furthermore, except memory strategy, the frequencies of using cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social strategies for higher proficiency EFL students are significantly higher than they are for the lower proficiency EFL students. Hypothesis Two is not totally rejected.
(2) Regression analysis
A multiple regression was used to form the model of the relationship between language learning strategy use and English proficiency. The regression analysis reveals how a change in one variable (X) relates to a change in the other variables (Y). In specific, the stronger the correlation between X and Y, the more accurately Y (dependent variable) can be predicted from X (independent variable), and vice versa. The multiple regression equation in this study is:
Yi = β0 +β1X1i +β2X2i +β3X3 i +β4X4 i +β5X5 i +β6X6 i + ei
Y: scores on English proficiency test
X1 ~ X6: scores on six types of strategies respectively
β0: intercept
β1 ~β6: the strength of the effect of language learning strategy use on the scores of the proficiency test
e: error term
Table 4 reveals the strength of the effect of language learning strategy use on GEPT total scores.
Table 4. Multiple Regression Analysis (GEPT vs. language learning strategies)
Regression Coefficients Standard Error t value p value
Intercept 237.25174 39.48839 6.01 <.0001
Memory -6.20846 10.22320 -0.61 0.5459
Cognitive 28.11589 11.36801 2.47 0.0162*
Compensation -4.90397 7.22605 -0.68 0.4999
Metacognitive 4.21342 10.91959 0.39 0.7009
Affective 7.15363 8.54679 0.84 0.4059
Social -6.52793 8.22850 -0.79 0.4307
Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level)
* p < .05 (significant at .05 level)
In Table 4, it was found that only cognitive strategy use reported by the lower proficiency EFL students was significantly related to the English proficiency test (GEPT scores).
Table 5. Multiple Regression Analysis (GEPT listening scores vs. language learning strategies)
Regression Coefficients Standard Error t value p value
Intercept 79.82353 17.25565 4.63 <.0001
Memory 4.00805 4.46733 0.90 0.3731
Cognitive 9.89607 4.96760 1.99 0.0508*
Compensation 0.08072 3.15764 0.03 0.9797
Metacognitive -0.93919 4.77165 -0.20 0.8446
Affective 0.07537 3.73478 0.02 0.9840
Social -2.12287 3.59569 -0.59 0.5571
Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level)
* p < .05 (significant at .05 level)
According to Table 5, it indicates that cognitive strategy use reported by the lower proficiency EFL students was also significantly related to the GEPT listening scores.
Table 6. Multiple Regression Analysis (GEPT reading scores vs. language learning strategies)
Regression Coefficients Standard Error t value p value
Intercept 101.70173 16.54886 6.15 <.0001
Memory -8.14345 4.28435 -1.90 0.0621
Cognitive 12.76931 4.76412 2.68 0.0094**
Compensation -2.52038 3.02830 -0.83 0.4085
Metacognitive 0.78987 4.57620 0.17 0.8635
Affective 6.50277 3.58180 1.82 0.0744
Social -4.35034 3.44841 -1.26 0.2119
Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level)
* p < .05 (significant at .05 level)
In Table 6, it shows that cognitive strategy use reported by the lower proficiency EFL students was significantly related to GEPT reading scores.
Table 7. Multiple Regression Analysis (GEPT writing scores vs. language learning strategies)
Regression Coefficients Standard Error t value p value
Intercept 53.27087 17.68434 3.01 0.0038
Memory -1.37903 4.57832 -0.30 0.7643
Cognitive 4.18496 5.0910 1 0.82 0.4143
Compensation -2.80693 3.23609 -0.87 0.3891
Metacognitive 4.51360 4.89019 0.92 0.3596
Affective 0.56589 3.82756 0.15 0.8830
Social 0.76750 3.68502 0.21 0.8357
Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level)
* p < .05 (significant at .05 level)
In Table 7, it presents that there is no significant relationship between language learning strategy use and GEPT writing scores.
Conclusions and suggestions
According to the independent samples t-test on proficiency level in Table 3, higher proficiency EFL students use language learning strategies more often than lower proficiency EFL students. Furthermore, compared to lower proficiency EFL students, higher proficiency EFL students use cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies more often. The result was consistent with the finding that intermediate level students tended to use proportionally more metacognitive strategies than students with lower proficiency level proficiency (O’Malley et al., 1985) and the finding that metacognitive strategy use rose as the foreign language course level increased (Chamot et al., 1987). In contrast, there is no significant difference in the use of memory strategies between higher and lower proficiency EFL students. In addition, both higher and lower proficiency EFL students use compensation strategies more often than other strategies probably because they are the easiest to use. This finding might imply that students tried to make up for their missing knowledge by using the most direct and natural way. Furthermore, in Table 4 multiple regression analysis, it was noted that cognitive strategies had the strongest relation to English proficiency. This finding might suggest that the English proficiency probably more depends on the cognitive strategies. The result is similar to Park’s (1997) investigation indicating that strategies were significantly correlated with test scores, and cognitive strategies were more predictive of scores than other strategies. Green and Oxford (1995) also found that intermediate students used cognitive strategies significantly more than did basic students. The positive relationship between cognitive strategy use and English proficiency represents that students with a greater use of cognitive strategy have better performance on English proficiency. In Table 5 and Table 6, it also indicated that cognitive strategy use had a greater effect on the listening and reading scores of the proficiency test. However, in Table 7, the relationship between cognitive strategy use and GEPT writing scores was not significant.
In conclusion, the principal findings from this investigation include:
1. Both higher and lower proficiency EFL students use compensation strategies more often than other strategies.
2. Higher proficiency EFL students use language learning strategies more often than lower proficiency EFL students.
3. The use of cognitive strategies had the strongest relation to English proficiency.
4. Cognitive strategy use had greater effect on the listening and reading proficiency.
What learners know about themselves and about their own learning process can affect their use of language learning strategies (Wenden, 1986). Chamot and her colleagues (1987) discovered that effective learners reported a greater frequency and range of strategy use. Learners’ level of strategy awareness also influences strategy use. Nyikos (1987) found that learners used only a narrow range of strategies and were generally unaware of the strategies they used. Therefore, in order to improve students’ language learning, EFL teachers need to understand what language learning strategies students use and encourage lower proficiency EFL students to use language learning strategies in their learning process. Moreover, teaching methods often influence how students learn. Teachers should become more aware of their students’ learning strategies in order to orient teaching methods more appropriately. This study provides the information about the difference in the extent and types of language learning strategy use between higher proficiency and lower proficiency EFL students and the strength of the effect of language learning strategy use on English proficiency. Future research should focus on methods to integrate language learning strategy training into language instruction, discovering other strategies other than the six types of language learning strategies discussed in this study might enhance students’ language learning and the effect of strategy instruction on language learning.
References
http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/December_08_ylw.php
Information Gap Activities
Working in Groups or Pairs During Cooperative Learning Lessons
© Dorit Sasson
Mar 15, 2008

Information gap activities work well in a variety of lesson plan activities such as vocabulary, reading comprehension and math activities.

Information gap activities are those in which students exchange information in order to complete a required lesson plan activity.
Most information gap activities are done in pairs, with each student having a part of the information. They are especially effective when used as vocabulary activities during the pre-reading part of a reading lesson, but they can also be applied to reading comprehension and math activities as well.
For example, this strategy can be used to teach new vocabulary from a passage students haven't yet read. Student A would have the vocabulary words written on strips of paper and student B would have the definitions of those words. Working together, they pair words and definitions to learn new vocabulary.
Vocabulary Activities
Information gap activities such as the example below function as vocabulary lessons after students have already encountered the vocabulary in the text.
Teacher and/or class prepare 2 lists of about 20 items. List A contains people and animals. List B contains objects. The aim is to combine one words from List A with one from List B. Example: What can a/an A do with a/an B? Why does a/an A need a/an B? Students create a list of combinations.
Or, Student A has pictures of newly introduced words and student B has the matching words. When matched correctly, they create an interesting shape.
Math Activities
The same principles of information gap activities can also be applied to Math lesson. Student A measures triangles of various sizes while student B measures circles of various sizes. Together, they answer questions that relate to the relationship between them.
Reading Comprehension Activities
An information gap activity can also be used as a main reading task when students need to share information they read from an assigned passage. An especially effective information gap activity is A jigsaw reading which is a type of activity that is done usually in groups. In a jigsaw reading, the teacher can use academic texts or texts from the students' coursebook.
In the traditional method of jigsaw reading, the teacher divides a text into sections and assigns each group a section to read. Each group is responsible for understanding its part. Then new groups are formed with one member from each previous team. The new groups now have one representative from each section and each can share what s/he understood from his or her part of text. Students then can either write a summary of the text or answer questions about the entire text.
How An Information Gap Activity Should Be Structured
Consider also the following main issues in your lesson plans:
• Purpose: What is the purpose of the activity? For example, is the purpose to introduce, reinforce, use or bridge the gap between letters and their corresponding sounds? Or, is the purpose to reinforce words and their meanings?
• Organization: Who is in control – the class or the teacher? Once you develop the necessary classroom management skills, you can effectively implement information gap activities.
• Length of Lesson: The element of time must be considered. How long will this activity take?
• Ability level: Consider the ability of the class, homogeneous or heterogeneous groupings, and adaptations such as a backup plan when students can't do the activity as planned.
• Materials and procedures: What is needed for the lesson? How will the teacher present information gap activities.
• Who? The level of the students including the ability and grade.
• What? What is the context for your information gap activity?
• How? Through which new points will the main skills be introduced? Example: Will students need to read a passage containing the new words before matching words and their corresponding definitions in pair work?
Possible Problems Using An Activity on an Information Gap
What if your lesson didn't go as planned? A potentially well planned information gap lesson can backfire due to neglect of one of the main planning issues (see above).
Classroom management is typically the reason why information gap activities do not go as planned. It is worthwhile to invest time therefore, in the principles of classroom management before implementing any information gap activity.
Information gap activities are user-friendly for the teacher to recycle previously taught information. Some will take more time to implement, but it is an investment well worth the effort.
http://lesson-plan-help.suite101.com/article.cfm/learning_games

 

Reliability http://cc.ysu.edu/~rlhoover/OPTISM/reliability_validity.html

Test reliablility refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring what it is intended to measure. Most simply put, a test is reliable if it is consistent within itself and across time. To understand the basics of test reliability, think of a bathroom scale that gave you drastically different readings every time you stepped on it regardless of whether your had gained or lost weight. If such a scale existed, it would be considered not reliable.

Validity
Test validity refers to the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure. Test validity is also the extent to which inferences, conclusions, and decisions made on the basis of test scores are appropriate and meaningful. The Hoover Study presents evidence that OPT is not valid, that the conclusions and decisions that are made on the basis of OPT performance are not based upon what the test claims to be measuring.

The Relationship of Reliability and Validity
Test validity is requisite to test reliability. If a test is not valid, then reliability is moot. In other words, if a test is not valid there is no point in discussing reliability because test validity is required before reliability can be considered in any meaningful way. Likewise, if as test is not reliable it is also not valid. The Hoover Study does not examine or make any claims about OPT reliability.
If a test is unreliable, it cannot be valid.

For a test to be valid, it must reliable.

However, just because a test is reliable does not mean it will be valid.

Reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity!

CHAPTER ONE http://makalahdanskripsi.blogspot.com/2009/02/validity-and-reliability-paper.html

VALIDITY

Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. While reliability is concerned with the accuracy of the actual measuring instrument or procedure, validity is concerned with the study’s success at measuring what the researchers set out to measure.

Social science research differs from research in fields such as physics and chemistry for many reasons. One reason is that the things social science research are trying to measure are intangible, such as attitudes, behaviors, emotions, and personalities. Whereas in physics you can use a ruler to measure distance, and in chemistry you can use a graduated cylinder to measure volume, in social science research you cannot pour emotions into a graduated cylider or use a ruler to measure how big someone’s attitude is (no puns intended).

As a result, social scientists have developed their own means of measuring such concepts as attitudes, behaviors, emotions, and personalities. Some of these techniques include surveys, interviews, assessments, ink blots, drawings, dream interpretations, and many more. A difficulty in using any method to measure a phenomenon of social science is that you never know for certain whether you are measuring what you want to measure.

Validity is an element of social science research which addresses the issues of whether the researcher is actually measuring what s/he says s/he is. As an example, let us pretend we want to measure attitude. A psychologist by the name of Kurt Goldstein developed a way to measure “abstract attitude” by assessing several different abilities in brain injury patients, such as ability to separate their internal experience from the external world, ability to shift from one task to another, and the ability to recognize an oragnized whole, to break it into component parts, and then reorganize it as before. Carl Jung defined attitude a introversion and extraversion. Raymond Cattell defined attitude in three components: intensity of interest, interest in an action, and interest in action toward an object (Hall & Lindzey, 1978).

Researchers should be concerned with both external and internal validity. External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable. (Most discussions of external validity focus solely on generalizability; see Campbell and Stanley, 1966. We include a reference here to transferability because many qualitative research studies are not designed to be generalized.)

Internal validity refers to (1) the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the study’s design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and wasn’t measured) and (2) the extent to which the designers of a study have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore (Huitt, 1998). In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.

Scholars discuss several types of internal validity. For brief discussions of several types of internal validity:

Face Validity

Criterion Related Validity

Construct Validity

Content Validity

KINDS OF VALIDITY

Face validity requires that your measure appears relevent to your construct to an innocent bystander, or more specifically, to those you wish to measure. Face validity can be established by your Mom – just ask her if she thinks your survey could adequately and completely assess someone’s attitude. If Mom says yse, then you have face validity. However, you may want to take this one step further and ask individuals similar to those you wish to study if they feel the same way your Mom does about your survey. The reason for asking these people is that people can sometimes become resentful and uncooperative if they think they are being misrepresented to others, or worse, if they think you are misrepresenting yourself to them. For instance, if you tell people you are measuring their attitudes, but your survey asks them how much money they spend on alcohol, they may think you have lied to them about your study. Or if your survey only asks how they feel about negative things (i.e. if their car was stiolen, if they were beat up, etc.) they may think that you are going to find that these people all have negative attitudes, when that may not be true. So, it is important to establish face validity with your population of interest.

In order to have a valid measure of a social construct, one should never stop at achieving only face validity, as this is not sufficient. However one should never skip establishing face validity, because if you do not have it, you cannot achieve the other components of validity.

Content validity is very similar to face validity, except instead of asking your Mom or your target members of your population of interest, you must ask experts in the field (unless your Mom is an expert on attitude). The theory behind content validity, as opposed to face validity, is that experts are aware of nuances in the construct that may be rare or elusive of which the layperson may not be aware. For example, if you submitted your attitude survey to Kurt Goldstein for a content validity check, he may say you need to have something to assess whether your respondents can break something down into component parts, then resynthesize it, as this is an important aspect of attitude, and otherwise you have no content validity. Many studies procede following content validity acvhievement, however this does not necessarily mean the measures used are entirely valid. Criterion validity is a more rigorous test than face or content validity. Criterion validity means your attitude assessment can predict or agree with constructs external to attitude.

Two types of criterion validity exist:

Predictive validity- Can your attitude survey predict? For example, if someone scores high, indicating that they have a positive attitude, can high attitude scores also be predictive of job promotion? If you administer your attitude survey to someone and s/he rates high, indicating a posotive attitude, then alter that week s/he is fired from his/her job and his/her spouse divorces him/her, you may not have predictive validity.

Concurrent validity- Does your attitude survey give scores that agree with other things that go along with attitude? For example, if someone scores low, indicating that they ahve a negative attitude, are low attitude scores concurrent with (happen at the same time as) negative remarks from that person? High bolld pressure? If you administer your attutude survey to someone who is cheerful and smiling a lot, but they rate low, indicating a negative attitude, your survey may not have concurrent validity.

Finally, the most rigorous validity test you can put your attitude survey through is the construct validity check. Do the scores your survey produce correlate with other related constructs in teh anticipated manner? For example, if your attitude survey has construct validity, lower attitude scores (indicating negative attitude) should correlate negatively with life satisfaction survey scores, nd positively with life stress scores.

CHAPTER TWO

RELIABILITY

In statistics, reliability is the consistency of a set of measurements or measuring instrument. Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure is measuring something consistently, but not necessarily what it is supposed to be measuring. For example, while there are many reliable tests of specific abilities, not all of them would be valid for predicting, say, job performance.

THEORY OF RELIABILITY

Reliability is intimately related to the concept of random error of measurement. It is generally accepted that all measurements of human qualities contain some error. When one administers a tes to a students, he secures a score which can be called the observed score. If he had tested this student on some other occasion with the same instrument, he probably would not have obtained the same observed score.

THE RELIABILITY INDICES

There are four commonly used methods for estimating the reliability of a test. Three of them : test retest, equivalent forms, and split half are based on correlational procedures.

KIND OF REALIBILILITY

TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY

An obvious way to estimate the realibility of a test is to administer it to the same group on two occaions and correlate thepaired scores. For measure realibilty of test we can give a test to same subject twice or more in the different time then combine them. For combine the result of both of test, it can used the korelation of pearson product moment. This reliability coefficient, because it is indicative of the consistency of subjects in time, is referred to as the coefficient of stability. A disadvantage of this procedure arises from the fact that human qualities and characteristics are continually changing. It may happen that some of the individuals who take the tests improve their marksmanship through practice, but for some reason the marksmanship of others deteriorates. The test- retest technique, therefore, is not appropriate in any situation in which memory may play a role. It’s use in schools is largely restricted to measures of physical fitness and athletic prowess.

EQUIVALENT-FORMS RELIABILITY

The equivalent- forms technique of estimating reliability, which is also referred to as the alternate- or parallel- forms technique, is used when it is probable that subject will recall their responses to the test items. If the two forms are administered at essentially the same time ( in immediate succession ), the resulting reliability coefficient is called the coefficient of equivalence. If subjects are tested with one form on one occasion and with another form on a second occasion and their scores on the two forms are correlated, the resulting coefficient is called the coefficient of stability and equivalence. The equivalent- forms technique is recommended when one wishes to avoid the problem of recall or practice effect and in cases when one has available a large number of test items from which to select equivalent samples. It is generally considered that the equivalent – forms procedure provides the best estimate of the reliability of academic and psychological measures.

SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY

It is possible to get a measure of reliability from a single administration of one form of a test by using split half procedures. The test is administered to a group of subjects, and later the items are divided into two comparable halves. Scores are obtained for each individual on the comparable halves and a coefficient of correlation calculated between these two scores.

A problem with this procedure is in splitting the test to obtain two comparable halves. If, through item analysis, one establishes the difficulty level of each item, one can place the items into two groups on the basis of equivalent difficulty and similarity of content. To transform the split-half correlation into an appropriate reliability estimate for the entire test , the Spearman- Brown prophecy formula is employed :

CHAPTER III

STEPS TO INCREASE VALIDITY AND REALIBILITY

Ways for increase validity and realibility on quantitatifi research. There are 6 srep that have to consideration in order to yhe instrument is used in research can fulfil the element of validity and realibility :

Look out the aspect that develop in that instrument

Developing the questions

Collecting the data

Perfecting the instrument

Looking for reability with new data

Looking for construct validity

Ways for increase validity and reability on qualitatif triangulasi is combine of two method or more on collecting the data, it is used to increase the data or make a appropriate conclusion.

There are many kind of triangulasi “ Cohen and Manion (1980)

Time triangulasi

Place triangulasi

Theory triangulasi

Method triangulasi

Research triangulasi

 

The Effect of Television on Children

Television is one of audio-visual media that may give positive and negative impact particularly for children. Today, there is a lot of television channel both local and international which display various programs. Parents should have to filter the program for their children in order they will not contaminated by bad program. Because, not all program are best for children.
The effects of watching Television on children is divided in two kinds. The first is negative impact and the second is positive impact. The positive impact is enlarging children knowledge. For example, discovery channel will give positive information about new world of animals as well as plants. When children feel bored, watching their favorite program can entertain them. Most of children are like to watch cartoon such as Tom and Jerry, Avatar, and Narotu.

 

Kendari traditional food

Typical Southeast Sulawesi Foods

There is a typical food of Southeast Sulawesi which is popular called Sinonggi. This is staple food made from Sagu. Sagu comes from old Sagu tree or people usually call Rumbia tree. These trees live in wet place. The inner part of the stem is taken and made into flour. The flour is dried up and ready to be made many kinds of food.
Sinonggi is a dish as a source of carbohydrates to substitute rice. Particularly, in Kendari it is completed with vegetables, snails and fish soup as complement. This dish is very delicious and the taste is spicy.
It is not difficult to make this dish. Firstly, prepare sagu in a bowl. Then, add some mineral water on it. Next, Sagu is mixed with boiled water. Actually, it is ready to eat but it is better to put some vegetables on dish that have been cooked. The vegetables are various, for example eggplant, string bean, watercress, banana bud and spinach. Finally, mix salt, paper, slice of tomatoes and lemon and put them a little on the plate of that dish.
Sometimes, people combine not only some soup of fish but also some soup of meat. It depends on personal desires. In short, Sinonggi is good to enjoy when it is still hot in lunch time.

 

AMERICAN VALUES IN AMY TAN`S STORY “TWO KINDS”

The basic of American values consist of individual freedom, self-reliance, and equality of opportunity, hard work, material wealth, and competition. In this paper, I will find out those values that reflected in “Two Kinds” story by Amy Tan. But, firstly I will give a briefly explanation about this story. This story was set in America which told about mother expectation to her child as a narrator named Jing-Mei. Jing Mei who growth up in America absorbed one American values that is Individual freedom. She refuses her mother expectation to be what her mother wants. Different from her mother who immigrant from china, her ideas about life is contrast with his child.

 

ANALYSIS OF RICHARD FRESHMAN SCRIPT PLAY

READER RESPONSE CRITICISM IN “RICHARD FRESHMAN” SCRIPT PLAY

Reader-response criticism focuses on attention to the reader rather than the work itself. This approach to literature describes what goes on in the reader’s mind during the process of reading a text. In a sense, all critical approaches (especially psychological and mythological criticism) concern themselves with a reader’s response to literature, but there is a stronger emphasis in reader-response criticism on the reader’s active construction of the text. Although many critical theories inform reader-response criticism, all reader-response critics aim to describe the reader’s experience of a work. Instead, the literary work is seen as an evolving creation of the reader’s as he or she processes characters, plots, images, and other elements while reading. Reader-response critics can produce many interpretations of the same text by different readers. Readers create the meaning of the text rather than discover meanings in texts. Thus, for reader-response critics, there is no single correct reading of a text.

1. CHARACTER

The character in this script is dynamic. For example, Richard Freshman, when he was in senior high school, he used to won award and the best student. Finally, when he is in College he gets grade 60 for Pascal program. Because of time he changed not as clever as in the school. I can compare these:

At school

I won the Basic achievement Award. …I was easily the        best           programmer in my school

At college

I got a 60 on it.

• Richard Freshman

Psychical characteristics

1. Polite shows in “Please, sit down” 2. Honestly “… but honestly I am not considering joining… “ 3. Kind person. When he read the letter his mom say “remember to choose your friends carefully” and then he answered “ I will mom” and “ we shared a lunch” 4. Shy person and afraid of girl “when Chris opened her shirt in front of him, Richard “Completely covers up his eyes with his book”. Beside that when Chris come to touch him, “ He jumps ten feet” 5. Clever person in Computer Science, let’s see this “… I’m good at it … I won the Basic achievement Award. …I was easily the best programmer in my school.”

• Jimmy

Psychical characteristics 1. Friendly “ everybody’s friend” 2. polite “ He`s very polite” Physical Black skin. We can see from his speeches “not gonna miss it, are ya ? “ this dialect is usually speak by black American society

• Chris

Psychical characteristics

Likes have fun “I’m going to have some fun”

Physical characteristics

1. Long and black hair 2. Pretty: she does look like an artist Sociological characteristic: Low economic background “My parents are broke, too”

• Millis

Psychical characteristics 1. Nice boy “I met a nice boy named Millis today 2. Impolite person “Millis, don’t you ever knock? “And “shut up, geek”. Physical characteristics Fat and maybe tall than Richard as shows in its narrative “Millis is big. Probably 61/2 feet tall, and weights twice as much as Richard.

• Tim1

Psychical characteristics 1. Like to make friends “we just wanted to tell you that we’re open to freshman any time…”

• Tim 2

Psychical characteristics Humorous person “But some people call us AA for short “ .also we can see when the narrator explain “ Tims laugh at Tim’s joke)

<

2. PLOT

Plot is a series of events or happenings that organize a text. In plot, conflict is the main important thing to emphasize when analyzing a story. There are two kinds conflict in this script, internal and external conflict. The conflict began when Richard knew that his roommate is a girl. He is afraid if his mother knows him that he is in the same room with a girl. I think there is an extreme conflict between Richard and Chris, his roommate, when he got 60 grade while Chris got 100, Richard was angry. He was loosened up by the only girl in his class. It is because he did not follow the direction how to do the task. This shows us there is competition between them to be the best one. Another conflict is happened in Millis life, he hate a biology subject because when he was in high school he lost his girlfriend. So, there an internal conflict between Millis and his mental/ psychic. He dislikes biology but in other side he has to learn it for getting a grade.

3. IMAGERY AND SYMBOL

•The last word Richard “freshman” name indicates that he is a freshman student in Computer Science Major.

• when Chris come to touch him, “ He jumps ten feet” means that Richard was surprised • Richard said” …. My mother is going to call in about a half an hour…” mean that he was waiting for her mother calling.

• Repetition of word such as “..Uh, have-have to start …” and “no, really. I –I can’t” show he is hesitate to go out with Chris

• Puts on her shoes draws that Chris will go out side. • “ Richard raises his hand” indicates that he wants to ask some thing.

• ” hey tiger, how are you “in this sentence compare his son like a tiger. Using symbol device I will say that this is quite ironic because tiger is wild animal, while after I read this script I saw that Richard is not as brave as tiger. Especially, he is afraid to close with a girl as reflected in this sentence “ why do I make you so nervous “ and ( Richard shrugs) then Chris said again “ are you afraid of me ?”.

4. SETTING

The first scene is in cafeteria. Second scene is in Richard dorm room. Next, setting is in the classroom. The setting of time is when the characters are in one year of age in a college because they are freshman. But, for particular time I did not find. The conclusion of this paper comes to the theme and massage of this story. The theme is talking about social life of students in the college and in the dorm house. Chris, a girl has individual freedom to do anything in his own life. May be it is caused she is far from her parents, she likes to go out and have fun. However, I appreciate to her, she is not forgetting to study, to do the best until she get 100 grades. This can be evidence that she do the task well. Contrast with Richard , his friend like Tims invite him to join with their activity but he rejected. Sometimes, Chris asks for dating with him, again he rejects. He thinks that there are many things to do such as stay at home and read a book. This is very ironic, it is usually man who likes has fun but this is a girl. Finally, I will say that although they live in the same room but both of them never to do the bad things.

REFERENCES

http://www.emule.com/2poetry/phorum/read.php?6,146714

http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/syllabi/berke.htm www.wikipedia.com